POLS Midterm Review Guide

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Intro Lectures:
Politics - the management of conflict over who shall rule and what policies shall be made.
Power - The ability to give or withhold support for a course of action.
Authority/Legitimacy - Political authority conferred by public opinion.
Force - Physical Violence or credible threat.
Rewards - Payment for good behavior.
Rational legal authority - Authority established through a process.
Government - The system of offices that oversee and guide the interactions of individuals in a political system.
Capitalism - Private property with market incentives.

Democracy/Constitution Chapter 1 & 2:
Democracy - Political system where the people rule.
Direct Democracy - Political system in which most citizens make policy as in a town meeting.
Republic - A form of democracy in which power is vested in representatives elected by means of popular competitive elections.
Representative Democracy - Political system in which policy is made by official elected by the people.
Parliamentary System - A government that vests power in an elected legislature that chooses the chief executive.
Presidential system - A government that vests power in a separately elected president and legislature.
John Locke - English philosopher who wrote the Treatises of Government.
Capitalism - Private property with market incentives.
Civil Society - Volunteer organizations or associations that citizens join to achieve goals independent of government.
Articles of Confederation - A constitution drafted by the newly independent states in 1777 and ratified in 1781. It created a weak national government that could not levy taxes or regulate commerce. In 1789 it was replaced by our current constitution in order to create a stronger national government.
Sovereignty - A governmental unit that has supreme authority and is accountable to no higher institution.
Shay's Rebellion - A rebellion in 1787 led by Daniel Shays and other ex-Revolutionary War soldiers and officers to prevent foreclosures of farms as a result of high interest rates and taxes. The revolt highlighted the weaknesses of the confederation and bolstered support for a stronger national government.
Constitutional Convention - Meeting of state delegates in Philadelphia in 1787, which resulted in the writing of the constitution.
Bicameral legislature - A lawmaking body made up of two chambers or parts. The congress in the U.S. is a bicameral legislature composed of a senate and a house of representatives.
Unicameral legislature - A lawmaking body with only one chamber, as in Nebraska.
James Madison - "The father of the constitution" that prepared the Virginia Plan which formed the basis for the deliberations at the 1787 convention.
Majority rule - The doctrine that states those candidates who win the most votes will fill office and whichever side in a legislature has the most votes determines which laws will be made.
Minority Rights - Rights of any group less than a majority. Normal individual rights as applied to members of racial, ethnic, class, religious, linguistic, or sexual minorities.
Virginia Plan - A proposal by Virginia delegates, drafted by James Madison at the Philadelphia Convention of 1787.
New Jersey Plan - The New Jersey Plan was a proposal for the structure of the United States Government which recommended that Congress be unicameral, and that all states be equally represented in Congress. It was proposed by William Paterson at the Philadelphia Convention on June 15, 1787.
Three-fifths compromise - A compromise between Southern and Northern states reached during the Philadelphia Convention of 1787 in which three-fifths of the population of slaves would be counted for enumeration purposes.
Federalists - Supporters of a stronger central government who advocated ratification of the constitution. After ratification they founded a political party supporting a strong executive and Alexander Hamilton's economic policies.
Federalist Papers - A series of eighty five essays written by Alexander Hamilton, James Madison, and John Jay that were published in New York's newspapers in 1787-1788 to convince New Yorkers to adapt to the newly proposed constitution.
Coalition - An alliance among different interest groups or parties to achieve some political goal.
Antifederalists - Opponents of a strong central government who campaigned against ratification of the constitution in favor of a confederation of largely independent states.
Faction - A group of people who seek to influence public policy in ways contrary to the public good.
Separation of powers - A principle of American government whereby constitutional authority is shared by three separate branches of government - legislative, judicial, and executive.
Checks and balances - The power of the legislative, executive, and judicial branches of government to block some acts by the other two branches.
Bill of Rights - The first ten amendments to the U.S. Constitution, containing a list of individual rights and liberties such as freedom of speech, religion, and press.

Civil Liberties Chapters 3 & 4
First Amendment - Freedom of speech, religion, press, assembly, and of the right to petition the government.
Civil rights - Rights of the citizens to vote, receive equal treatment before the law, and to share the same benefits of public facilities.
Civil liberties - Rights accorded to an individual by the constitution.
due-process clause - Protection against arbitrary deprivation of life, liberty, or property as guaranteed in the fifth and fourteen amendments.
equal protection clause - The provision in the fourteen amendment guaranteeing that no state shall deny to any person the equal protection of the laws.
Incorporation - A doctrine whereby the Supreme Court incorporates--that is, includes---many parts of the Bill of Rights into restrictions on government actions.
Clear and present danger - A standard for judging when freedom of speech can be abridged; "no one has a right to shout `fire' in a crowded theater when there is no fire because such an action would pose a clear and present danger to public safety."
Prior restraint - The press is guaranteed freedom from censorship. After publication however the government can punish the press for material that is judged libelous or obscene.
Libel - Injurious written statements about another person.
Poll tax - Money that must be paid in order to vote. There used to be poll taxes in some places in the USA; this tax kept many poor people from voting since they could not afford to pay the tax. The twenty fourth Amendment to the Constitution (ratified in 1964) made poll taxes illegal.
Literacy test - An exam to determine that a voter can read, write and understand public issues. In 1965, President Johnson enacted the Voting Rights Act, which abolished literacy tests and other voter restrictions and authorized federal intervention against voter discrimination.
Commerce clause - The Commerce Clause is an enumerated power listed in the United States Constitution (Article I, Section 8, Clause 3). The clause states that the United States Congress shall have power "To regulate Commerce with foreign Nations, and among the several States, and with the Indian Tribes".
Ex post facto law - Any law that makes an act a crime that was not a crime at the time it was committed or that increases penalties or renders conviction easier after the fact, was outlawed by the constitution.
Lemon Test - Three tests may be gleaned from the cases. First, the statute must have a secular legislative purpose; second, its principal or primary effect must be one that neither advances nor inhibits religion; finally, the statute must not foster an excessive government entanglement with religion.
Establishment Clause - A clause in the First Amendment to the Constitution stating that Congress shall make no law "respecting an establishment of religion".
Free Exercise Clause - A clause in the First Amendment to the Constitution stating that Congress shall make no law prohibiting the "free exercise" of religion.
Wall of Separation - A Supreme Court interpretation of the Establishment clause in the First Amendment that prevents government involvement with religion, even on a non-preferential basis.
Employment Division v. Smith(1990) - Smith a Native American in Oregon, gets fired for the religious use of peyote. Smith doesn't get jailed or hired. Division wins.
Double jeopardy - The prosecution of a defendant for a criminal offense for which he has already been tried; prohibited in the fifth amendment to the United States Constitution.
White primary - White primaries were primary elections in the Southern States of the United States of America in which any non-White voter was prohibited from participating. White primaries were found in many Southern States after about 1890 and through the mid-1960s.
Miranda Rights - Rights read by an officer to a person in custody before they are interrogated. If rights are not read before interrogation of the person in custody, then the answers to the questions may be kept out of court.
Probable Cause(Search Warrant) - A reasonable belief that a crime has occurred, is occurring, or will occur, which is sufficient to justify an arrest of a person, a search, or a seizure of property. It is often described as more than a mere suspicion.
Exclusionary rule - The legal rule that states where evidence has been obtained in violation of the search and seizure protections guaranteed by the US Constitution, the illegally obtained evidence cannot be used at the trial of the defendant.
Good-faith exception - In United States constitutional law, the good-faith exemption (also good-faith doctrine) is a legal doctrine providing an exemption to the exclusionary rule.
Separate but equal - A legal doctrine in U.S. constitutional law that justified systems of segregation.
Plessy v Ferguson (1896) - Homer Plessy was told to sit in the colored car even though he was only 1/8s black, so he went to the court, but in a 7 to 1 decision the court declared Plessy guilty and rejected Plessy's arguments based on the fourteenth amendment then ruling the law for separate but equal.
Brown v Board of Education (1954) - Ruled that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional. This swept through the nation beginning the civil rights movement. Brown v. Board of Education is a victory for democracy.
Civil rights act of 1964 - Piece of legislation that outlawed major forms of discrimination against blacks and women and ended racial segregation in the U.S. It prohibited discrimination in public facilities, and in employment, invalidating the Jim Crow laws in southern states.
Affirmative action - The requirement imposed by law or administrative regulation, that an organization take positive steps to increase the number or proportion of women, blacks, or other minorities in its membership.
Suspect classification - Classifications of people on the basis of their race and ethnicity. The courts have ruled that laws classifying people on these grounds will be subject to strict scrutiny.
Strict scrutiny - The standard by which the Supreme Court judges classifications based on race. To be accepted, such a classification must be closely related to a compelling public purpose.
Quasi-suspect classification - Any classification of groups meeting a series of criteria suggesting they are likely the subject of discrimination.
Heightened scrutiny - Classifications based on gender and illegitimacy.
Reverse discrimination - Using race or sex to give preferential treatment to some people.
Reasonableness test - Procedure to examine the logic of accounting information.
Shelly v. Kraemer (1948) - A U.S. Supreme Court case which held that courts could not enforce racial covenants a on real estate, declaring they violate basic civil rights via the fourteenth amendment.
Voting rights act of 1965 - An act that outlawed discriminatory voting practices that had been responsible for the widespread disenfranchisement of African Americans in the United States.

Federalism Chapter 5
Federalism - A political system in which ultimate authority is shared between a central government and state or regional governments.
Federal system - Power is divided between central and local, state, or regional governments. Both the central government and the constituent governments act directly upon the citizens. Both must agree to constitutional change.
Unitary System - Power is centralized. State or regional governments derive authority from central government.
Confederation/confederal system - A political system in which states or regional governments retain ultimate authority except for those powers that they expressly delegate to a central government.
Express powers - Those delegated powers of the National Government that are spelled out, expressly, in the constitution; also called the "enumerated powers".
Implied powers - Those delegated powers of the National Government that are suggested by the expressed powers set out in the Constitution.
Necessary-and-proper clause/Elastic clause - The final paragraph of Article I, Section 8, of the constitution, which authorizes Congress to pass all laws "necessary and proper" to carry out the enumerated powers. Sometimes called the elastic clause because of the flexibility it provides to Congress.
Nullification - A legal theory that a U.S. State has the right to nullify any federal law which that state has deemed unconstitutional.
Federal mandate - A federal law or act compelling state to take certain actions, sometimes without providing funds such as "No child left behind", an example of an unfunded mandate.
Full faith and credit clause - A name used to refer to Article IV, Section 1 of the Constitution, that addresses the duties that states within the U.S. have to respect the "public acts, records, and judicial proceedings" of other states.
Supremacy clause - The clause in the U.S. constitution, Article VI, stating that all laws made furthering the constitution and all treaties made under the authority of the U.S. are the supreme law of the land.
Gibbons v. Ogden (1824) - Ferry Service in New York Harbor. Outcome: Feds win; states must recognize licenses issued by federal government. Justification: "Interstate Commerce" clause and "Supremacy" clause.
McCulloch v. Maryland (1819) - U.S. National Bank. Outcome: Feds win(McCulloch); bank is constitutional. Justification: "Necessary and Proper Clause and "Supremacy" clause.
Wickard v. Filburn (1942) - Grain Production in Ohio. Outcome: Feds win; Farmers crops can be regulated by federal government. Justification: "Interstate Commerce" clause, argued that farmers affect the interstate commerce even if they buy or sell nothing.
Heart of Atlanta (1964) - Discrimination in private business, specifically a motel that wanted to serve only white clients. Outcome: Feds(U.S.) wins; civil rights can be imposed by federal government, even on private business. Justification: "Interstate Commerce" clause and "Supremacy" clause.

Grants In Aid - Federal funds provided to states and localities. Grants in aid are typically provided for airports, highways, education, and major welfare services.
Block grants - Grants of money from the federal government to states for programs in certain general areas rather than for specific kinds of programs.
Categorical Grants - A federal grant for a specific purpose defined by federal law; to build an airport, for example, or to make welfare payments to low-income mothers. Such grants usually require that the state or locality put up money to "match" some part of the federal grant, though the amount of matching funds can be quite small.
Conditions of aid - Federal rules attached to the grants that states receive. States must agree to abide by these rules in order to receive the grant.

Public Opinion and Media Chapter 6
Political Ideology - A coherent and consistent set of attitudes about who ought to rule and what policies out to be adopted.
Liberal - In general, a person who favors a more active federal government for regulating business, supporting social welfare, and protecting minority rights, but who prefers less regulation of private social conduct.
Conservative - In general, a person who favors more limited and local government, less government regulation of markets, more social conformity to traditional norms and values, and tougher policies toward criminals.
Libertarian - One who advocates liberty either generally or on a specific issue. A believer in a political doctrine that emphasises individual liberty and a lack of governmental regulation and oversight.
Populist - An advocate of democratic principles and the political doctrine that supports the rights and powers of political doctrine that supports the rights and powers of the common people in their struggle with the privileged elite.
Public Opinion - A belief or sentiment shared by most people; the voice of the people.
Poll - A survey of public opinion.
Random Sample - A sample selected in such a way that any member of the population being surveyed has an equal chance of being interviewed.
Sampling error - The difference between the results of two surveys or samples. For examples, if one random sample shows that 60 percent of all Americans like cats and another random sample taken at the same time shows that 65 percent do, the sampling error is 5 percent.
Partisanship - A member devoted to a cause or a party.
Political elite - A relatively small dominant group within a large society, having a privileged status perceived as being envied by others of a lower line of order.
Political socialization - The component of the process of individuals coming to learn and internalize the culture of their society or group that is directly related to the transmission of political values and behaviors.
Political culture - Widely shared beliefs, values, and norms concerning the relationship of citizens to the government and to one another.
Institutions of Socialization - The groups, practices, and systems that convey and inculcate the values of political culture to rising generations and new members.
Reinforcing Cleavages - If cleavages overlap with each other, this can heighten the conflict and be more divisive. The disagreements produced by one division (e.g. class), will reinforce the divisions produced by another (e.g. race). Finding agreement and compromise across groups in this situation can be that much more difficult.
Cross-cutting Cleavages - If cleavages cut across each other, this can lessen the presence of conflict across groups. Disagreements produced by one division can produce cross-pressures for individuals and mitigate the divisions they may experience by way of another cleavage. Cross-pressures help produce "bridges" across the cleavages, making agreement and compromise more likely.
Gatekeeper - In human communication, in particular, in journalism, gatekeeping is the process through which ideas and information are filtered for publication. The internal decision making process of relaying or withholding information from the media to the masses.
Watchdog - A person or organization that monitors and publicizes the behavior of others (individuals, corporations, governments) to discover undesirable activity; To perform a function analogous to a watchdog; To guard and warn.
Media profit motive - A "horse race" that rakes in the cash for the media.
Freedom of the press - The freedom of communication and expression through vehicles including various electronic media and published materials.
Slanted stories -
Media bias - Media bias refers to the bias of journalists and news producers within the mass media, in the selection of which events and stories are reported and how they are covered.
Selection bias - When the treatment and control groups involved in the program are initially statistically unequal in terms of one or more of the factors of interest. This is a threat to internal validity.
Perception bias - Perspective in theory of cognition is the choice of a or a reference (or the result of this choice) from which to sense, categorize, measure or codify experience, cohesively forming a coherent belief, typically for comparing with another.
Horse Race - Used as a metaphor for an election campaign, “horse race” conveys the feeling of excitement that people experience when watching a sporting event.

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